Young adult

For other uses, see Young adult (disambiguation).

Young adult in medicine and the social sciences, is generally a person in the years immediately following adolescence. Young adults are typically individuals in the age range of 18 to 19 years, representing a transition between adolescence and full adulthood. During this phase, individuals begin to assume adult responsibilities, such as increased independence and decision-making, while still benefiting from guidance in managing these new roles.

The young adult stage in human development precedes middle adulthood.

In the literary business, the term young adult is often used informally or in a marketing sense for the readers of young adult literature, books targeted at readers starting from around ages 12 or 13 up to 18 or 19. This broad extension of young adult to minors has been disputed, as they are not considered adults by law or in most cultures, outside of specific religious or cultural traditions.

Education and First Employment

The age range of 18 to 19 years marks a crucial period of transition in terms of education and entry into the labor market. At this stage, many young adults are completing secondary education or are enrolled in higher education institutions, seeking skills that can prepare them for the workforce or more specialized careers. Organizations such as UNICEF emphasize the importance of developing transferable skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication, which are essential for employability at this life stage.

In the United Kingdom, statistics show that a large percentage of 18 to 19-year-olds are still involved in some form of education or training, while others enter the labor market directly or combine work and study. According to the Department for Education's statistics, in 2023, 81% of young people in this age group were engaged in education, training, or employment.

In the United States, skill development for 18 to 19-year-olds is often linked to preparation for their first job. Young adults in this age range, while gaining greater independence, may still require support in areas such as decision-making and adapting to the work environment. According to Michigan State University Extension, this stage is characterized by the onset of financial responsibilities, such as managing personal resources and balancing the demands of work and study.

Additionally, the entry into the workforce for 18 to 19-year-olds can vary depending on the economic and social context. In many regions, youth employment rates are closely tied to the availability of educational opportunities and technical or vocational training. UNICEF emphasizes that quality education and access to skill development programs are essential for improving young adults' employment prospects.

Age of Majority

The age of majority refers to the legally defined age at which a person is considered an adult, with all the rights and responsibilities that accompany adulthood. For most countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, the age of majority is set at 18 years. This legal milestone marks the point at which an individual can vote, sign contracts, and make independent decisions without the consent of a parent or guardian.

Between the ages of 18 and 19, young adults navigate the shift from adolescence to full legal responsibility. In many cultures, reaching the age of majority is a significant rite of passage, symbolizing independence. However, despite this legal transition, many 18- and 19-year-olds are still in a phase of personal and social development, often relying on family and educational institutions for support.

For foster youth in countries like the UK, turning 18 does not always signify complete independence. Special provisions are often made to ensure continued support for those transitioning out of the foster care system. The legal age of majority grants certain freedoms, but programs and policies recognize that many young adults may still require guidance and assistance during the critical years of 18 to 19.

Internationally, while the age of majority is most commonly set at 18, some variations exist. For example, in certain countries, legal adulthood might be reached at a younger or older age, depending on local laws and cultural norms. However, the age of 18 remains the most widely recognized marker for adult rights and responsibilities.

Despite being legally recognized as adults, young people aged 18 to 19 often face challenges as they assume adult roles while still being in educational settings or transitioning into the workforce. This period represents a delicate balance between newfound legal independence and ongoing personal development.

Criminal and Civil Responsibility of Young Adults

At the age of 18, individuals are generally considered legally responsible for their actions, both in civil and criminal contexts. In most countries, including the United States and the United Kingdom, 18-year-olds are treated as adults under the law, which means they can be held fully accountable for crimes, face trial as adults, and be subject to civil lawsuits.

In terms of **criminal responsibility**, the transition from adolescence to adulthood occurs at 18 years of age in most legal systems. This shift signifies that young adults between the ages of 18 and 19 are no longer subject to juvenile justice systems, but instead face the full penalties associated with adult courts. However, some experts have raised concerns about whether this age range is appropriate for full criminal responsibility, citing ongoing cognitive and emotional development in late adolescence. Critics, such as those highlighted by the Guardian, have argued for raising the age of criminal responsibility, emphasizing that many young adults may not fully comprehend the long-term consequences of their actions.

Regarding **civil responsibility**, 18- and 19-year-olds are also legally accountable for contractual agreements and can be sued or take legal action in civil disputes. This means they are responsible for any legal obligations they enter into, such as signing rental agreements, taking out loans, or being liable for damages caused by their actions. Although these young adults are legally recognized as adults, they may still face challenges in understanding the complexities of civil law and managing financial responsibilities.

Internationally, the age of criminal and civil responsibility varies slightly, though 18 is the most commonly recognized threshold for adulthood. In Europe, most countries adhere to this age for full legal responsibility, although there are discussions in some regions about whether this age should be adjusted based on research into cognitive development and social maturity.

While young adults aged 18 to 19 are granted full legal rights and responsibilities, they often continue to experience personal and social growth during this period. As such, balancing these newfound legal responsibilities with ongoing development remains a challenge for many in this age group.

Erik Erikson's theories of early adulthood

According to Erik Erikson, in the wake of the adolescent emphasis upon identity formation, 'the young adult, emerging from the search for and insistence on identity, is eager and willing to fuse their identity with that of others. He [or she] is ready for intimacy, that is, the capacity to commit... to concrete affiliations and partnerships.' To do so means the ability 'to face the fear of ego loss in situations which call for self-abandon: in the solidarity of close affiliations, in orgasms and sexual unions, in close friendships and in physical combat'. Avoidance of such experiences 'because of a fear of ego-loss may lead to a deep sense of isolation and consequent self-absorption'.

Where isolation is avoided, the young adult may find instead that 'satisfactory sex relations... in some way take the edge off the hostilities and potential rages caused by the oppositeness of male and female, of fact and fancy, of love and hate'; and may grow into the ability to exchange intimacy, love, and compassion.

In modern societies, young adults in their late teens and early 20s encounter a number of issues as they finish school and begin to hold full-time jobs and take on other responsibilities of adulthood; and 'the young adult is usually preoccupied with self-growth in the context of society and relationships with others.' The danger is that in 'the second era, Early Adulthood... we must make crucially important choices regarding marriage, family, work, and lifestyle before we have the maturity or life experience to choose wisely.'

While 'young adulthood is filled with avid quests for intimate relationships and other major commitments involving career and life goals', there is also "a parallel pursuit for the formulation of a set of moral values". Erikson has argued that it is only now that what he calls the 'ideological mind' of adolescence gives way to 'that ethical sense which is the mark of the adult.'

Reaching adulthood in modern society is not always a linear or clean transition. As generations continue to adapt, new markers of adulthood are created that add different social expectations of what it means to be an adult.

Daniel Levinson's theory of adult development

Daniel Levinson argued that developmental sequences continue to occur as we transition into adulthood. Levinson's theory centers around Erik Erikson's conception of life courses. This theory of Erikson includes patterns and relationships of events in the person's life that distinguishes them. The study of life courses covers all aspects of life relationships, internal and external feelings, bodily changes, and the good and bad times that are experienced. Preadulthood, Early Adulthood, Middle Adulthood, and Late Adulthood are the four eras that constitute the life course. Preadulthood begins with conception and continues to roughly the age of 22. During these years the person grows from being extremely dependent and undifferentiated to being a more independent responsible adult. This is the era in that we see the most biopsychosocial growth. The Early Adulthood Transition is part of this first stage while also being a part of the second stage, which is from the age of 17 to 22. Here is when the pre-adulthood era begins to draw to a close and the transition to early adulthood begins. It is here that the individual begins to modify their relationship from the pre-adult world so that they fit better to the adult world they are creating. The second era Early adulthood begins at age 17 and goes till 45. It begins during the early adulthood transition and has the greatest amount of energy, contradiction, and stress. This is typically the time for pursuing ambitions and aspirations, finding a place in society, forming families, strengthening relationships and as the era ends establishing a solid position in the adult world. The third period (Middle Adulthood) begins at age 45 and goes till 65, here we begin to see a decline in our biological capacities and mental faculties, though this decline is not enough to completely deplete us of the energy we had during early adulthood and it still allows us to continue to have a socially valuable life. The final era is late adulthood which begins at age 65 and ends with death. In this era, the individual has to find a new balance between involvement with society and the self. An individuals health begins to deteriorate at an increased, albeit varying rate, as such they should be given the ability to freely choose the mode in which they live their lives.

Settling down

After the relative upheaval of the early 30s, the middle to late 30s is often characterized by settling down: 'the establishment phase', involving 'what we would call major life investments—work, family, friends, community activities, and values.' After making major investments in life, individuals make deeper commitments and thus pursue them with increased determination. What has been termed 'the Culminating Life Structure for Early Adulthood (33–40) is the vehicle for completing this era and realizing our youthful aspirations.' People in their thirties may increase the financial and emotional investments they make in their lives, and may have been employed long enough to gain promotions and raises. They often become more focused on advancing their careers and gaining stability in their personal lives—'with marriage and child-rearing,' starting a family, coming to the fore as priorities.

Gail Sheehy, however, signposts the same twenties/thirties division differently, arguing that 'the twenties have stretched out into a long Provisional Adulthood', and that in fact 'the transition to the Turbulent Thirties marks the initiation to First Adulthood.'

Midlife transition

Young adulthood then draws to its close with 'the Midlife Transition, from roughly age 40 to 45'—producing 'a brand-new passage in the forties, when First Adulthood ends and Second Adulthood begins.' In the midlife transition, early adulthood often ends, and individuals make changes in their lives, such as in their career. The end of early adulthood can be defined as when a person stops seeking adult status or wanting to feel like an adult. When people reach the midlife transition, they shift from talking about how old they are to bolster their reputation and emphasize how young they are. In the midlife transition, individuals focus more on the present than the future and the past. In this transitional period from early to middle adulthood, individuals tend to focus less on themselves and more on their relationships. In addition, individuals experience physical changes which may then subsequently necessitate a change in regards to their perceived body image.

Levinson thought midlife to be a time of development of crisis. However, research today in the United States shows that individuals do not experience a midlife crisis. Instead, individuals report midlife to be a freeing and satisfying period of life. In the midlife transition, the issue is not whether the individual has achieved or failed in accomplishing the goals they formed in the previous era. Rather the issue at hand is what the individual should be doing with the experience of disparity between their goals and outcomes.

See also

• Emerging adulthood
• Quarter-life crisis
• Twixter
• Young adult fiction
• Young professional
• Youth culture
• Youth engagement
• Youth politics
• Youth rights
• Youth suicide
• Youth

Notes

• Erikson, Erik H (1975). Childhood and Society. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-020754-5.
• Erikson, Erik H (1993). Childhood and Society. WW Norton & Company. doi:10.1002/1520-6807(199507)32:3<243::AID-PITS2310320315>3.0.CO;2-4. ISBN 0-393-31068-X.
• Erikson, Erik H. (1982). The Life Cycle Completed. W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-01622-6
• Erikson, Joan (1997). "Ninth stage of development". The life cycle completed: Extended version with new chapters. Erikson, Erik H. New York: WW Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-03934-X.
• Sheehy, Gail (1996). New Passages: Mapping Your Life Across Time. Ballantine. ISBN 978-0-00-255619-4.
• Rapoport, Rhona; Rapoport, Robert N. (1980). Growing Through Life. Harper & Row. ISBN 978-0-06-384751-4.
• Birch, Ann (1997). Developmental Psychology: From Infancy to Adulthood (2nd ed.). Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-66959-4. Archived from the original on 2022-07-05. Retrieved 2022-07-05.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
• Zastrow, Charles; Kirst-Ashman, Karen (2009). Understanding Human Behavior and the Social Environment. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-60374-0.